The art of war: A critique

Contradictory as it may sound, The Art of War (Sun Tzu, trans. 2007) actually deals with the art of peace. Sun Tzu (trans. 2007) maintained that war is an invention, not a biological need and that we should dare to make peace instead, outsmarting one’s opponents so that physical battle becomes unnecessary. Originally written twenty-five centuries ago as a guide for military conduct, the reflexions in this Chinese classic are present-day and applicable to unveil the roots of conflicts and find solutions to them, even outside the field of warfare.

Sun Tzu (trans. 2007) was a Chinese military strategist whose work inspired military and political leaders such as Napoleon and Machiavelli when disseminated into the western world many centuries after its creation. The two basic principles on which this collection of ideas relies are that all warfare is based on deception and that the supreme art of war is to subdue the enemy without fighting (Sun Tzu, trans. 2007). However, rather than a summary of steps to follow in war, this masterpiece of strategy should currently be interpreted as a guide for those concerned with competition and enmity, having ample applications outside the military.

The book is divided into the translator’s prologue, a brief introductory chapter about its historical context and thirteen chapters which encompass advice on different aspects which have to be taken into consideration if one is to be triumphant: The strategist should have a clear vision of the problems he might encounter and he should be able to recognise opportunities to attack adequately, but only if necessary. Consequently, the plan design should be flexible enough to respond to changing circumstances (Sun Tzu, trans. 2007).

According to the author, attention must also be paid to the treatment of soldiers, rewarding and punishing them to keep them motivated, and to the disposition and mobilization of the troops, with close understanding of the economy of war. Identifying and evaluating the enemy’s intentions and weaknesses and knowing how to make use of the correct weapons to defeat him – correct utilization of time and environment, having spies obtain information, attacking the enemy when he is unprepared – will all lead to the accomplishment of the one’s ultimate objective: victory.

In general terms, Sun Tzu’s (trans. 2007) work has surpassed the military boundaries and has expanded into other fields: business, sports, diplomacy and personal matters, becoming a valuable guide to strategic thinking in competitive situations. It is not an easy book to read as it requires meditation and interpretation of the concepts approached, as they should be understood in a metaphorical sense if we are to make the most of this work. The Art of War is strongly advisable for those who wish to overcome the conflicts which arise in their daily personal and professional lives. A second and deeper reading will not only provide a closer insight into the theme addressed but will also offer the opportunity to discover new considerations about competition and rivalry.

Reference

Sun Tzu. (2007). El arte de la guerra [The art of war] (Baudilio García, Sinesio, trans.). Buenos Aires, Argentina: Centro Editor de Cultura.

A descriptive-informative annotated bibliography

Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51(4). Retrieved August 28, 2009, from http://www.apap.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf

This article is concerned with the implementation of Flanagan’s (1954) critical incident technique (CIT), which has proven to be useful in obtaining relevant information for the evaluation and ensuing enhancement of the behaviours of those involved in a certain discipline. Through visual examination of an individual’s performance in a particular place at a specific moment, the observer collects data by means of a certain procedure. With a plan to follow in the pursuance of previously set objectives, the situation observed is subsequently analysed and meticulously interpreted to finally obtain an unambiguous report of the outcomes, which will serve as the parameter to take into consideration in order to make suitable changes in connection with the different requirements of the area explored. Possibly due to the simplicity of its application and practicality, this technique has rendered success in enriching the practices of many people in the ample variety of fields in which it can be applied.

Reference

Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51(4). Retrieved August 28, 2009, from http://www.apap.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf

Academic text structure

Academic texts must fulfil certain requirements: On the one hand, acknowledging sources both in-text and in the reference list, plays a vital role so as to avoid plagiarism and, at the same time, retain credibility of the piece of writing. On the other hand, differences in lexis and structure from the original work are worthy of consideration, too, since even though there might be changes within the quotation, these should not affect the intended meaning of the words quoted. On the whole, the correct application of these stipulations will contribute to successful academic writing.

With regard to documentation of sources, it is essential to bear in mind that in-text citations are necessarily complementary to the reference list. “Every single citation … included in the body of the paper should be mentioned in your reference list and [vice versa]” (Pintos, 2008a, p. 15). However, if we are citing an author from a secondary source, it is this material which has to be acknowledged in the references and not the original, as it has not been read. The American Psychological Association (APA) style (2001) organizes in-text citations into: parenthetical citations, paraphrased citations, block quotations and direct quotes (cited in Pintos, 2008a), each of which has distinct characteristics.

In her work, Myles (2002) cites Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) parenthetically: “a two-way interaction between continuously developing knowledge and continuously developing text” (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987, p. 12) (para.2). In addition, Myles (2002) directly quotes when she states that “Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) also propose a model that suggests reasons for differences in writing ability between skilled and less-skilled writers” (para. 10). In connection with the previous examples, quotation marks are only used when the exact words of the original have been borrowed. Conversely, they are not used in block quotations. An example of this is Yau’s (1991) comment on L2 influence on writing performance (cited in Myles, 2002, para. 46):

[A]lthough we should not cripple our students’ interest in writing through undue stress or grammatical correctness, the influence of second language factors on writing performance is something we have to reckon with and not pretend that concentrating on the process would automatically resolve the difficulty caused by these factors. (p.268)

Block quotations are used when the number of words exceeds forty (APA, 2001). According to the APA style (2001), both in direct quotes and in block citations, it is compulsory to write the page number after the author’s name and the year of publication of the source in the in-text parenthetical citation. Nonetheless, attention must be paid to punctuation: Whereas in direct quotes the full stop is written after the citation, in block quotations it appears right before it, as illustrated in Yau’s (1991) block quotation, where the full stop follows the word factors.

Still, when there is no page number in the work under analysis and there comes a need for it, paragraph numbers are used instead (APA, 2001). Moreover, the experts’ recommendation for cases when the paragraphs are not numbered but the text contains headings is to include the name of a particular heading followed by the paragraph number under that heading in the parenthetical citation. On the other hand, neither the page number or the quotation marks are used in the citation when the original writing has been paraphrased or summarized: “Knowing how to write a summary or analysis in Mandarin or Spanish does not necessarily mean that students will be able to do these things English (Kern, 2000)” (as cited in Myles, 2002, para. 5).

Pertaining to quotations, it is also important to know how to deal with changes within them. In order for our text to be coherent, some modifications are sometimes necessary. Omission of words, phrases and even sentences – process referred to as ellipsis – as well as insertion of words and letters, allow the reader to follow the written material comprehensively; that is to say, the wording will remain both intelligible and legitimate in spite of the fact that some parts might have been inserted or removed.

Ellipses are used to indicate that a part of the words quoted has been omitted (Pintos, 2008b) because it was unnecessary or did not fit in the rest of the writing. The missing words are replaced by three dots with a space between each if only a part of a sentence is absent, or four dots if a whole paragraph has been removed. They are not, however, used at the beginning or end of a quotation. This is set forth in Myles’s (2002) quote: “‘By comparing skilled and less-skilled writers, the emphasis here is placed on students' strategic knowledge and the ability of students to transform information . . . to meet rhetorically constrained purposes’ (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996, p. 116)” (para. 7).

Insertions are written between square brackets as evidence that we have included a word or a letter inside the quoted text so that it looks readable and coherent within the larger piece. This is exemplified in the block quotation above beginning “[A]lthough …” (Yau, 1991, as cited in Myles, 2002, para. 46) in which a lower-case letter was replaced by a capital letter because it was the first word in this quotation but not in the original.

Introductory phrases are also mandatory in academic writing. They are a type of in-text citation which present information of the material being quoted so as not to plagiarize the author’s work. They always contain two elements: the source and the main idea but their structure may show variations (Pintos, 2008). Instances of such phrases can be found in Myles (2002), such as “The Flower and Hayes (1980, 1981) model focuses on …” (para. 7), “Flower and her colleagues (1990) analyze …” (para. 8), and “According to the researchers, ‘conceptualizing …’ (p. 222)” (para. 9).

Reporting verbs are a tool which effective writers adopt to produce interesting pieces (Pintos, 2008a). Therefore, it is essential to make use of varied lexical items, which will not only help avoid repetition but will also enrich the writing. Thoughtful evaluation should be given to the exact meaning of verbs, as they may vary in objectivity (Pintos, 2008a). Myles (2002) utilizes a wide variety of reporting verbs throughout the article: “focuses on” (para. 7), “analyze” (para. 8), “propose” (para. 10), “observes” (para. 13), “argues that” (para. 25), “have stressed” (para. 38), “points out” (para. 40) and “mentions” (para. 47) among others.

In summary, many aspects require attention if the intention of the writer is to produce an academic paper. Through the correct use of citations with their corresponding information being included in the reference list and the use of pertinent academic vocabulary and linguistic devices, the outcome cannot translate into other than a respectable, legible, coherent piece. Exploiting these resources will not only result in accurate material but it will also show reliability and professionalism in the writer’s work.

References

American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Myles, J. (2002). Second language writing and research: The writing process and error analysis in student texts. Teaching English as a Foreign Language. 6(2) A-1. TESL-EJ. ISSN: 1072-4303. Retrieved September 10, 2009, from http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESl-EJ/ej22/a1.html

Pintos, V. (2008a). Unit 2: Personal narratives in teaching. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved August 22, 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2724

Pintos, V. (2008b). Unit 3: Academic writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved September 10, 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2725

Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL) (Last edited October 22, 2009). APA formatting and style guide. Retrieved October 22, 2009, from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/

Effective academic summaries

Academic writing is a tool of utmost importance to enter – and survive in – a discourse community and, at the same time, to help us grow professionally (Pintos, 2008). Individuals willing to gain such membership should not only pay attention to what the content of a text is, but also to how it is dealt with. Therefore, the manner the writer’s understanding of a particular subject is treated will definitely make a difference as regards the impact on the readers and the writers themselves.

Composing meaningful language implies both writing to transmit knowledge and writing to transform knowledge, only the latter of the two belonging to the academic field (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996, cited in Pintos, 2008) and being discipline-specific (Mac Donald, 1994, cited in Pintos, 2008). Swales (1990) holds that knowledge transforming has certain features which are directly related to those of a discourse community, making it the means through which academic writing is developed (cited in Pintos, 2008). Thus being aware of the varied types of academic text structures will help advanced foreign language students both to make a contribution to society and to reach higher levels of writing (Morra de la Peña, 1995, cited in Pintos, 2008).

Writing academic summaries, in particular, calls on us to respect certain rules. To begin with, a main point to be taken into consideration is to always bear in mind the audience and the purpose of the matter in question (Pintos, 2008). In an attempt to characterize some other features also present in this kind of text, a student’s summary of Reid’s (1994) book will be examined (cited in Pintos, 2008). While there seems to be a “clear, neutral and balanced” statement of ideas in the work analysed (Pintos, 2008, p. 7), some aspects need polishing so that it looks more like academic writing.

To begin with, the introduction contains all the information required: the name of the author and year of publication of the book appear in the introductory phrase and the title of the work summarized appears in the topic sentence. Also, the main points of the original piece are explicitly mentioned. Nevertheless, with just a definition of what a good summary is, the second sentence does not comply with the other requirements: It contains no facts or examples which support the main idea, nor does it begin with a linking word, which would help the reader understand the organization of the paragraph (Pintos, 2008).

Furthermore, the distinction between the body and conclusion – second and third paragraphs – is not clear when it comes to integral comprehension of the written material. On the one hand, even though the body is very short, it fulfils its function of developing the main idea. However, the conclusion appears to be quite ineffective. In spite of objectively establishing a round-up and link to the introduction, the choice of the connector “moreover” is not appropriate to show that the passage is, in fact, concluding.

In addition, and with reference to the use of linking devices, the discourse markers however, in order to and that is to say are correctly placed, as they organize the sentences in a coherent and cohesive manner, making the whole flow quite comprehensively. Moreover, and worth mentioning in this context, the paragraphs do not include specific details nor do they make use of many adjectives (Pintos, 2008). Nonetheless, some of the words are repeated several times, situation which could have been avoided through the use of synonymous lexical items or paraphrasing.

In conclusion, despite the many appropriate features in the summary analysed in this paper, the text in question definitely requires improvement. With a little more attention paid to not repeating words and correctly using discourse markers, plus rephrasing some of the lines, the text would have reached the set standards of one worthy of a place within an academic discourse community. All in all, effective writing is part of a process and, as such, it implies hard work; what matters, in the end, is that professional growth is on the road to success.

Reference

Pintos, V. (2008) Unit 3: Academic writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires,Argentina. Retrieved September 10, 2009, fromhttp://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2725

Find what you love: A summary

In his speech at the Stanford commencement, Jobs (2005) shares three personal stories. Although apparently hopeless at first, they meant change of fortune for his life.
Leaving college, being dismissed from his own company and being diagnosed with cancer were the milestones which would not only reinforce the passion for what he did but also serve as engines for perseverance.
As a closing message, Jobs (2005) emphasizes how thirst for knowledge and innovation will make a difference in anything we embark on. Only following our intuition, will we overcome the obstacles in the way to the fulfilment of our desires.

Reference

Jobs, S. (2005, June). Find what you love. Commencement speech presented at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, USA. Retrieved September 26, 2009 from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D1R-jKKp3NA

Critical incidents in the teaching profession

Having worked as a teacher for over sixteen years, I have encountered several difficulties related to various classroom situations which have ranged from students’ misbehaviour to preparation of certain contents and structures which I did not fully master, especially in my first years of work. Like many other colleagues, I started teaching when I was only eighteen, years before graduating, so I did not have the pedagogical training and experience that some circumstances demanded nor did I know of the Critical Incident Technique (CIT), which Fernández González, Elórtegui Escartín and Medina Perez (2003) discuss in their article.

The CIT can be considered a very useful tool when it comes to finding solutions to problems like the ones I used to have, as it can be used as a formative strategy in teacher training (Fernández González et al., 2003). Traditionally, more attention had been given to teaching than to learning processes. Therefore, in order to restructure and balance this situation, Tejada (2000) proposed that considerations should be made about the need for training reflective professionals, capable of observation, analysis and interpretation of others’ practices (cited in Fernández González et al., 2003). Even though I was not a professional yet, having taken part in such procedures would have helped me acquaint myself with these matters sooner.

In my days as a student-teacher, formative practices of such kind involved observation of already established teachers – in the best of cases – in their own classes, and subsequent practices with the same group of students. In general, certain characteristics from these graduate teachers, and also from our lecturers at college, were expected to be eventually transferred to our own practices as teachers. At training schools, students learn how to teach and, as Monereo (1999) argues, this should help them reflect not only on the concepts being acquired but also on how they are presented, paying attention to the educators’ abilities, attitudes and values (cited in Fernández González et al., 2003).

In particular, I found pre-service teacher training thoroughly enlightening for my professional career. Without much formal practice in my assets then, observation of teachers at work made me reflect on possible solutions to situations that might arise in my own classroom, and on those which had already occurred. Moreover, when it was my turn to be in front of that same class and be observed by a classmate and a tutor, I knew that their comments would be of great value for me to reflect once again on what should be changed and what should not. In fact, the remarks and the written reports that the teacher trainer provided where actually inspiring.

Similar in aim but different in method, the use of critical incidents as described in the article, is organized around narratives of real situations. On the whole, importance is given to the context in which the situations take place, to the description of the specific problem being observed, to its possible causes and to the most appropriate solutions (Fernández González et al., 2003). However, the authors agree that the causes and solutions discussed in these reflection activities are only valid for the groups and the situations under analysis and they will only help trainees accumulate experiences and identify cases in future practices. Nevertheless, I personally find the application of CIT significantly appropriate for teacher development.

Although strategies will differ depending on the context, classroom implications are highly valued. Being observed and observing will not only aid us to reflect on our current practices but they will also provide us with different resources which will prepare us for immediate decision-making at any problematic situation that might arise in future classes (Fernández González, Elórtegui Escartín, & Medina Perez, 2001, cited in Fernández et al., 2003). This is exactly how it worked for me: in different courses which I observed and taught during my pre-service teacher training, situations arouse which eventually replicated in more recent classes. Opportunely, as I had already experienced similar ones, I was later able to handle them successfully.

All things considered, I would find it enriching if a colleague or superior observed and commented on my current classes, thus improving on my professional work. Since this is not the case, I have to rely on my own introspection and interpretation of the outcomes. Though I discuss particular cases with colleagues and we help each other find a solution, being observed in situ and eventually receiving reports on that would help me assess situations that I might unintentionally overlook. The results would definitely assist me in designing new strategies for improved futures practices, enhancing my continuous professional growth.

Reference

Fernández González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N., & Medina Pérez, M. (2003). Los Incidentes Críticos en la Formación y Perfeccionamiento del Profesorado de Secundaria de Ciencias de la Naturaleza. Revista Interuniversitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17(1), 101-112. Universidad de Zaragoza: Zaragoza, España. Retrieved August 22, 2009, from http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417107

Analysing the critical incident technique

Throughout the years, the critical incident technique (CIT) has rendered useful results in finding out information for the analysis and eventual improvement of people’s behaviour in varied fields (Flanagan, 1954). By directly observing an individual or group in a particular situation, the observer collects data which might be valuable for enriching the practices of the person(s) being observed and of others involved in the same discipline (Fernández, Elórtegui, & Medina, 2003). It is the purpose of this paper to analyse the characteristics, uses and procedural stages in applying this technique.

Flanagan (1954) describes an incident as “any observable human activity that is sufficiently complete in itself to permit references and predictions to be made about the person performing the act” (para. 3). He further holds that, given a particular event, an incident is said to be critical when the purpose of the observation is “clear to the observer” and where its outcome proves sensible (para. 3). Moreover, it has to make “a significant contribution, either positively or negatively, to the general aim of the activity” (The Procedure in its Present Form section, para. 22).

According to Flanagan (1954), since every situation observed is unique, it would be inappropriate to generalize and apply a “rigid set of rules” for all circumstances but rather conceive “a flexible set of principles” (The Procedure in its Present Form section, para. 1). In any case, several aspects require attention: The context in which the situation takes place, the description of the specific problem being observed, its possible causes and the most appropriate solutions, which, although applicable to other events, are only valid for the cases under analysis (Fernández González et al., 2003).

In a second step, subsequent to the observation, Mezirow (1990) argues that the observers should “record thoughts and feelings related to the incident as it happened and after the action took place, being careful not to interpret or analyze the action taken” (as cited in Pintos, 2008, p.8). In addition, in order for the observations to be considered reliable, the judgements made by the different observers should stand a certain degree of objectivity; that is, the purpose of the observation should be constantly present in their minds so that they produce reports which are approximately the same (Flanagan, 1954).

In order to implement the CIT, a specific procedure must be followed. The first of five steps involves determining a set of objectives which will direct the accomplishment of the activity. These general aims specify what exactly is to be done and what is expected of the participants in order for the outcome of the activity to be effective (Flanagan, 1954). Frequently, the “authorities in the field” are the ones in charge of formulating them (Flanagan, 1954, The Procedure in its Present Form section, para. 13) but, in the end, it is the participants who will show acceptance or not.

In the design of the aims, specific and enthralling language should be used so that communication is conveyed. Besides, some steps are to be considered so that it is easier to reach an agreement among those qualified to decide. They will firstly answer a general question on the primary purpose of the activity, which might need summarizing to obtain a “brief usable statement” (Flanagan, 1954, para. 58). Careful revisions also become necessary so that the final statement is agreed upon by most of the participants in the activity.

Once the general aims have been defined, and as a second step in the successful implementation of the CIT, Flanagan (1954) points out that a plan for collecting data must be developed. “[P]recise instructions must be given to the observers” both in connection with the evaluation and classification of the data collected and the specification of the group to be studied (The Procedure in its Present Form, para. 14). Furthermore, records of the observed incidents obtained from reporting personnel result either distinctly effective or ineffective in attaining the general aims of the activity. In fact, these extreme behaviours are the ones which make critical incidents operative for obtaining specific data.

Four components are required to collect information: First of all, the situations observed must be delimited; i.e., there should be information about the place and time, the people being observed and their activities, so that the observer can determine whether specific behaviour is worthy of observation or not (Flanagan, 1954). Secondly, it has to be decided whether or not the behaviour observed attains the general aim of the activity, being as objective as possible. In the third place, the specification of the effects that an observed incident has on the general aim has to be specified, expressing their level of positive or negative contributions. Finally, there has to be an appropriate selection and training of those who are to observe and report the activity, taking into consideration their familiarity with it (Flanagan, 1954).

In a third phase of the procedure, Flanagan (1954) asserts the importance of “behaviours [being] observed, evaluated, classified and recorded while the facts are still fresh in the mind of the observer” (The Procedure in its Present Form section, para. 28). He also explains that, despite their objectivity, the reports should include details so that the information is considered accurate. Following this criteria, four procedures are typically used to collect data: Individual interviews, group interviews, questionnaires and record forms, each of which present characteristics which make them more relevant in a given field than in others (Flanagan, 1954).

In education, particularly, the use of written records could be regarded as the most appropriate if done as the incident takes place. The fact that the observation is made in situ, makes it possible to gather useful material connected with the general behaviours in the classroom, especially through the use of tally-charts. In observing pre-service teachers, for instance, this tool simplifies the collection of information because, while simple in implementation, it provides the observer with specific details which might be of use for the teacher to improve their practices.

The last two phases in the procedure are related to looking into the material obtained through observation more closely. The fourth step comprises the analysis of the data: The information is summarized and described as efficiently as possible so that it can result in varied practical uses. Fifth and last, the interpretation and report of the statement of the requirements of the activity is made. Flanagan (1954) puts emphasis on “[t]he possible biases and implications of decisions and procedures made in each of the four previous steps [which] should be clearly reported” (Summary and Conclusions section, para. 2). Therefore, careful attention must be paid in interpreting the data so that no errors are made.

As regards the areas in which the CIT has been found applicable, only nine had been explored by the time Flanagan’s (1954) article was written, many of which have been implemented by the American Institute for Research. Flanagan (1954) describes the following:

1. “Measures of typical performance” (Uses of the CIT section, para. 3) in which, through the use of check-lists, the evaluation of an individual’s performance can be recorded objectively.

2. “Measures of proficiency”, which are useful “at the end of training courses as checks on the maintenance of proficiency” (Uses of the CIT section, para. 12).

3. “Training” (Uses of the CIT section, para. 19), carried out mainly for the military. The application of the technique has provided “an ideal basis for developing training programs and … materials” and for “evaluating the effectiveness of [such] program[s]” (Uses of the CIT section, para. 21-22).

4. “Selection and classification” (Uses of the CIT section, para. 23), used to define requirements of the activity prior to the psychologist’s in their conclusions and to develop tests to predict performance.

5. “Job design and purification” (Uses of the CIT section, para. 30). In an attempt to maximize the effectiveness of the performance of each of the tasks, training each of the members for few of the critical job elements will narrow their scope, thus purifying the task.

6. “Operating procedures” (Uses of the CIT section, para. 32). A systematic analysis of detailed facts on successes and failures helps improve the functionality of the operations. Projects carried out by the American Institute for Research provide evidence for the adequate and advantageous use of the CIT in relation to modifications that can be applied in order to avoid unwanted situations and to foster efficiency in emergencies.

7. “Equipment design” (Uses of the CIT section, para. 36). The collection of critical incidents might provide the tools for the improvement of the design of equipment. When it comes to the educational field, for instance, the application of the CIT could help improve the materials which are currently available for use in the classroom, and which are not always adequate for each of the situations different students are involved in; namely materials for state schools which relate to the students’ immediate needs and life context.

8. “Motivation and leadership” (Uses of the CIT section, para. 40). This technique can be used to provide a factual basis for the study of attitudes in different fields. It might help, for example, to raise awareness of prospective teacher’s decisions and choices as regards delving into this too often criticized career, what motivates them to do so and what roles they would be better at in the field.

9. “Counselling and psychotherapy”. Even though meetings in this area sometimes collect factual information as well, they mainly focus on the “impressions, opinions and reports of single cases” in the search for both the individual and the therapist’s procedures’ improvement (Uses of the CIT section, para. 43).

In summary, the systematic implementation of the CIT in different fields seems to be a great contribution to the evaluation of those being observed, as it will not only aid their superiors with obtaining a record of specific performance but it will also serve as a parameter for the eventual modifications in behaviours and related equipment. On balance, its application aims at enhancing the practices of every current or future member of the community of the discipline in question.

References

Fernández González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N., & Medina Pérez, M. (2003). Los incidentes críticos en la formación y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria de ciencias de la naturaleza. Revista universitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17(1). Zaragoza, España: Universidad de Zaragoza. Retrieved August 28, 2009, from http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417107

Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51-4. Retrieved August 28, 2009, from http://www.apap.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf

Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 2: Personal narratives in teaching. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved August 28, 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2724

Relationship between reading and writing within an academic context

Purpose: To explain the relationship between reading and writing in the process of academic writing.
Thesis statement: Reading and writing are intimately related and significantly influence each other within the field of advanced literacy.
Audience: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) communities.

I. Linking reading and writing: Academic vocabulary (Martin, 1976, cited in Pintos, 2008)
A. Research-process vocabulary
1. Verbs
2. Nouns
B. Vocabulary of analysis
1. High-frequency verbs
C. Vocabulary of evaluation
1. Adjectives
2. Adverbs
II. Activating L1 schema: Bridging the vocabulary gap (Nuttall, 1996, cited in Pintos, 2008)
A. Brainstorming ideas
B. Debating
III. Reading and writing: Meaningfulness of written language
A. Learning to read
B. Learning to write
C. Writing to learn
IV. Purpose of reading: Providing opportunities for language acquisition and study
A. Introducing interesting and engaging texts
B. Stimulating discussion
C. Provoking imaginative and creative responses
D. Challenging students’ cognitive capacities
E. Constructing general knowledge
V. Purpose of reading academic texts: Having a voice to be heard (Pintos, 2008)
A. Fostering advanced literacy
B. Motivating meaningful writing
C. Developing reading capacities
D. Delving into the target community

Reference

Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved August 23, 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730

Integrating reading and writing into our daily lives

Reading and writing are intimately related. With the intention of integrating them in order to form an effective system in the academic discourse community, Bloor (1985) suggests four different approaches: psychological, linguistic, content-oriented and pedagogically-oriented (cited in Pintos, 2008). It is the aim of this paper to describe real-life examples which exemplify each of these.

Bloor’s (1985) psychological approach focuses its attention on the reader and the psychological process involved in reading (cited in Pintos, 2008). An example of this approach would be identifying a word, phrase or sentence from a group in which it appears: while walking in a crowded shopping centre, for instance, a person looks up at the different shop signs in order to find the shop they are looking for. This implies recognition of the visual input, relating the printed word (the visual symbol) to its associated meaning or concept.

The linguistic approach centres on language. Attention is drawn to the words and sentences of a given text; that is, to the reader’s linguistic knowledge. An illustration of this in a real-life situation, could be finding that a small part of one of the pages of book being read has been torn or is blurred. However, because of the reader’s language awareness and familiarity with the subject-matter in question, he/she might predict what the missing words and their functions are.

Bloor’s (1985) content-oriented approach concentrates on meaning and use. Reading is stimulated because the reader has a specific purpose for doing so. For instance, any person who is on a diet and wants to control the number of calories they consume on a daily basis will read the nutrition facts label on any packet of food so that they do not eat more than they should.

Finally, in the pedagogically-oriented approach the focus is on individual access. Readers can use self-access materials at their own pace. In their free time, people choose what to read from the public library or from their own bookcase, and they also decide where and when to do so. This is because they have personal control over what they read.

In summary, every one of Bloor’s (1985) approaches has their own characteristics. None seems to be better than the other since all of them are necessary in our lives, depending on the purpose we have for reading. Valuable consideration should be given to reading in the teaching-learning process in order for students to be better prepared to construct more academic pieces of writing.

Reference

Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved August 13, 2009 from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730

Professional development in the education field

It is the intention of this paper to approach some important issues which underlie being professional teachers, relating them to the article by Howley and Howley (2005). First of all, a description of a possible relation between high-quality teaching and teachers’ professional development will be described. Secondly, the discourse markers present in their article will be listed and their use as a means of producing academic writing will be succinctly discussed. Finally, the use of management strategies in professional development in the education field will be briefly addressed.

Howley and Howley (2005) commence their article with the presupposition that high-quality teaching, and the subsequent students’ high level of achievement, very much depend upon teachers’ professional development. According to the authors, people involved in education – from those who provide the sources of guidance for action (policymakers) to the ones who implement these in the classroom (teachers) – believe that the quality of student achievement is directly associated with professional development.

In view of that, it seems that the more teachers do to improve their teaching, the better their performance in the classroom is and the higher their students’ success in accomplishing the set goals. However, the fact that teachers take action regarding their professional development does not necessarily mean that classroom instruction will foster high student achievement. Traditional teaching might persist even after educators participate in professional development courses (Howley & Howley, 2005). At any rate, these authors state that it is teachers’ knowledge of subject matter that is more associated with students’ learning.

The use of discourse markers is my second point of discussion. They are “words … [or phrases] that provide a connection between ideas in written [and oral] language” (Macmillan dictionary, n.d.). They bind together different parts of discourse, thus contributing to the meaning of the message. They might be simple conjunctions, like or and but, or they might be more formal connectors like nevertheless and with regard to. They are more frequently used in writing, but they are also present in formal oral speech.

The use of discourse markers is of utmost importance since, without them, a piece of writing would not seem logically constructed. Furthermore, using them is vital in professional academic writing since it is “only at the professional level [that] academic writing [can] be consistently characterized as knowledge making” (Mac Donald, 1994, as cited in Pintos, 2008, p. 25). Nevertheless, care must be taken to avoid overusing them.

An appropriate distribution in use of discourse markers is displayed in the text by Howley and Howley (2005): There are certain simple conjunctions that appear repeatedly in the article: and (to express addition), but (to express contrast), or (to express choice), because (to express reason) and so (to express consequence) among others. Other more formal discourse markers which also emerge from the text have been listed in the following outline in an attempt to classify them according to their function:

1. Concessive: They indicate that the content of the sentence “exists” despite the content in the preceding/following sentence/clause. Examples: though – however – nevertheless – despite – even though.

2. Additive: They indicate that the content of the sentence is in addition to the preceding one. Examples: in addition – furthermore - moreover – as well as - at the same time.

3. Generalizing: They generalize the content of what was stated in previous sentences. Examples: in the main - in general.

4. Resultative: They indicate that the content of the sentence is a result of the events expressed in the preceding sentence. Examples: as a result – because of this.

5. Enumerative: They indicate items on a list of propositions. Examples: first – second.

6. Reinforcing: They assert the truth of what follows, despite contrary expectations. Example: in fact.

7. Replacive / Antithetic: They indicate that the content of the sentence is in contrast to the content of the preceding sentence. Examples: rather than - instead of – alternatively.

8. Appositive: They rephrase / exemplify the preceding sentence. Examples: for example - for instance - that is (i.e.).

(Quirk & Greenbaum, 1995)

With regard to my third and last statement in the introduction, professional development might actually serve to improve schools’ instruction but only under certain principles, one of which emphasizes the need for an “open and sustained dialog among members of the organization” (Senge, 1994 in Howley & Howley, 2005). The fact that some improvement tactics are “[g]rounded in management approaches …” entails the application of business management strategies in the pursuance of professional development, by involving educators in the establishment of standards and assessment of their performance (Howley & Howley, 2005, Data-based Improvement section, para. 1). In short, together with educators’ reflective inquiry and the existence of professional learning communities, data-based improvement rooted in management enhances teaching quality and hence, professional development.

In summary, being a professional teacher seems to imply certain principles which any person who attempts to be a professional should be guided by, and which relate not only to acquiring new knowledge and skills to be updated, but also reflecting and being responsible and autonomous (Banfi, 1997, cited in Pintos, 2008). Connected with this, any professional who endeavours to develop knowledge through academic writing, should do so with the aid of discourse markers, which become indispensable in the construction of logical text, especially at the professional level, and therefore generating awareness of quality in the organizational processes which developing professionally demands.

References

discourse marker. (n.d.) In Macmillan Dictionary online. Retrieved December 28, 2009, from
http://www.macmillandictionary.com/dictionary/british/discourse-marker

Howley, A., & Howley, C. B. (2005). High-quality teaching: Providing for rural teachers' professional development. The Rural Educator. Retrieved August 23, 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4126/is_200501/ai_n13591361

Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved August 30, 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730

Quirk, R., & Greenbaum, S. (1995). A University Grammar of English. Essex, England: Longman.

English for Academic Purposes: Definition and classification

Purpose: To provide a general overview of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) according to Jordan (1997).
Thesis statement: EAP provides students in higher levels of education with the basis to succeed in their formal studies in both general and specific areas.
Audience: EAP teachers and students and academic writers.

I. What is EAP?
A. Definition

B. Range of settings
1. Students’ needs
a. Higher education studies
b. Pre-departure courses
2. Time
a. Pre-sessional; usually full-time
b. In-sessional; usually part-time
3. Format
a. Formal teaching programs
b. Self-access situations
c. Distance-learning materials
d. Computer-assisted language learning

C. Coverage
1. English for General Purposes (EGP) / Teaching of English for No Obvious Reason (TENOR)
2. English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
a. English for Occupation/Vocational/Professional Purposes (EOP/EVP/EPP)
b. English for Academic Purposes (EAP)

D. English for Academic Purposes
1. English for General Academic Purposes (EGAP) – common core / study skills
2. English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP) – subject specific English
a. Language structure
b. Vocabulary
c. Particular skills needed for the subject
d. Appropriate academic conventions

II. What are Study Skills?
A. Definition
(Jordan, 1997)

Reference

Jordan, R. (1997). English for academic purposes: A guide and resource book for teachers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Discourse community: Basic criteria

A discourse community is sometimes referred to as a knowledge community. According to Swales (1990), it can be defined as a social system made up of people who gather in pursuance of the accomplishment of common goals, and who are familiar with the particular genre around which the community in question is organized. In the same work, the author establishes some basic principles for a discourse community to be considered as such. A selection of statements from the articles written by Wenzlaff and Wieseman (2004), Kelly-Kleese (2001; 2004) and Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles and Lopez-Torres (2003) has been cited in an attempt to exemplify the conditions put forward by Swales (1990).

Swales (1990) proposes certain requirements that a discourse community should meet, namely common goals, participatory mechanisms, information exchange, community-specific genres, highly specialized terminology and high level of expertise. These six basic criteria outline the basis for communication among professionals in diverse fields; that is, each different requisite is not exclusive to one community only but rather a flexible set applicable in varied communities. He firstly states that a discourse community must share a set of common goals which have to be public. Wenzlaff and Wieseman (2004) sustain the idea of “a team working toward the same goal” (The Cohort Becomes a Collaborative Culture section, para. 3) while Kelly-Kleese (2004) holds that the members of a certain discourse community develop common purposes through time.

The participatory mechanisms which Swales (1990) describes as a second criterion imply intercommunication among all the members of the discourse community. This requirement will vary in accordance with the area and the group. In the article by Wenzlaff and Wieseman (2004), several authors discuss how “[g]roup work can be a viable means of promoting positive change and accomplishing tasks” (Hulse-Killacky, Kraus, & Shumaker, 1999; Jacobs, Harvill, & Masson, 1994, para. 6) through the use of different methods of communication: “face-to-face study groups, electronic bulletin board discussions and electronic chat sessions” ( Wenzlaff and Wieseman, 2004, para. 15).

The participatory mechanisms mentioned in the previous paragraph provide information exchange, which is the third of Swales’s (1990) criteria. “Participating in the discourse of their disciplines and of higher education in general is an expectation of their culture; it is part of the conceptual scheme of the discourse community” (Kelly-Kleese, 2001, para. 5). Within a discourse community, participating through both reading and writing in the campuses, for instance, are a means of sustaining the life of such community (Kelly-Kleese, 2004). Furthermore, Wenzlaff and Wieseman (2004) suggest that “[f]or teacher learning to occur, teachers need opportunities to participate in professional communities that discuss learning theories and various teacher materials and pedagogy” (para. 5).

This sharing of information and feedback essentially offers the necessary tools for the members of a community to grow professionally: “A discourse community cannot exist in the absence of a collaborative culture and an environment that supports risk-taking” (McLaughlin & Talbert, 1993, as cited in Wenzlaff & Wieseman, 2004, Summary and Implications section, para. 2). This might be the reason why Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles and Lopez-Torres (2003) suggest that “interact[ing] with colleagues in goal-directed activities that require communication and the exchange of ideas” results in professional development (para. 12).

As regards the genre-specific condition of a discourse community, it seems to direct “how things get done, when language is used to accomplish them” (Martin, 1958, as cited in Swales, 1990, p. 26). Cross and Steadman (1996) agree that “[t]here is a need to develop a teaching community [where faculty can] come together in thoughtful conversations about teaching” (as cited in Kelly-Kleese, 2004, para. 28). Moreover, Porter (1992) acknowledges that “discourse communities cannot be isolated from other discourse communities…. [and that they] overlap – and are flexible and locally constituted” (as cited in Kelly-Kleese, 2001, para. 7). Therefore, if a discourse community incorporates genres from another, these have to be assimilated so that they fit into the new community (Swales, 1990).

In connection with the previous requirement, it is archetypal of a discourse community to employ the highly specialized terminology which Swales (1990) proposes and which might be unknown to those who are not participants of that community. Characteristically, this special jargon is shown through the use of “community-specific abbreviations and acronyms” (Swales, 1990, p. 26). In Hoffman-Kipp et al. (2004), the terms CHAT, ZPD and K-12, to mention a few, exemplify specialized terminology in the teaching field. The terms non-traditional and open door which appear in Kelly-Kleese (2001, 2004) and K-12 again in Terri and Wieseman (2004), also represent this condition.

Finally, the sixth characteristic refers to the high general level of expertise which both novice and expert members of a community must possess. According to Bowers (1987), more qualified language-skilled participants of a discourse community will render a certain degree of power over the less experts’ view of social reality (cited in Kelly-Kleese, 2001). This means that an exchange between apprentices and more skilled members of the community is of vital importance for its preservation: “[L]earning environments where people collaborate … and rely on other, more experienced members of the activity system” will perpetuate the relevant discourse community (Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles, & Lopez-Torres, 2003, para. 17).

In conclusion, Swales (1990) has been able to synthesize the six basic characteristics which he considers sufficient and necessary for a discourse community to be recognized as such. Succinctly, the successful information exchange between beginner individuals and more expert ones working collaboratively towards a common objective will only be realized through the use of both general and specialized lexical items within a certain genre and by means of different participatory mechanisms. All in all, learning through sharing and involvement in accordance with defined conventions within a specific discourse community will aid the student who wants to enter a community of higher education to deviate from the informal nature of their written texts and acquire more academic knowledge in order to accomplish the new requirements.

References

Hoffman-Kipp, P., Artiles, A., & Lopez-Torres, L. (2003). Beyond reflection: Teacher learning as praxis. Theory into Practice. Retrieved August 13, 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0NQM/is_3_42/ai_108442653

Kelly-Kleese, C. (2001). Editor’s choice: An Open Memo to Community College Faculty and Administrators. Community College Review. Retrieved August 13, 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HCZ/is_1_29/ai_774814633

Kelly-Kleese, C. (2004). UCLA community college review: Community college scholarship and discourse. Community College Review. Retrieved August 13, 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HCZ/is_1_32/ai_n6361541

Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre Analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Wenzlaff, T., & Wieseman, K. (2004). Teachers Need Teachers to Grow. Teacher Education Quarterly. Retrieved August 13, 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3960/is_200404/ai_n9349405